Assignment 109:- Meaning Beyond the Words: The Function of Figurative Language in Richards’s Practical Criticism

Assignment 109:- Meaning Beyond the Words: The Function of Figurative Language in Richards’s Practical Criticism

Table of contents:- 

 1. Academic Information

 2. Assignment Details 

 3. Abstract

 4. Introduction

 5. Richards’s Method: Practical Criticism as a Scientific Approach to Literature

 6. The Tenor and the Vehicle: Understanding Metaphor

 7. Figurative Language and the Psychology of Reading

 8. The Role of Context and Ambiguity  

9.Figurative Language as a Measure of Literary Value

 10. Legacy and Influence on Modern Criticism

 11. Figurative Language in the Digital Age

 12. Conclusion

 13. Reference 

 

Academic Information:-

Name:- Sanket Vavadiya 

Batch:- M.A. Sem 2(2024-26)

Roll No:- 25

Enrollment number:- 5108240039

E-mail:- vavadiyasanket412@gmail.com

Assignment Details:- 

Topic:- Meaning Beyond the Words: The Function of Figurative Language in Richards’s Practical Criticism

Paper number:- 109: Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetics 

Submitted to:- Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, MKBU, Bhavnagar

Date of submission:- 17 April 2025

Abstract 

I. A. Richards’s treatment of figurative language in his influential work Practical Criticism (1929), highlighting its central role in literary interpretation. Richards redefines metaphor as a cognitive and psychological process, introducing the concepts of “tenor” and “vehicle” to explain how meaning is constructed through analogy. Emphasizing the psychological and emotional dimensions of language, Richards argues that figurative expressions are essential to understanding poetry and navigating ambiguity. The essay also explores the ethical implications of metaphor, its role in shaping interpretation, and Richards’s enduring impact on modern literary theory. In an age of digital communication, his insights remain vital for developing critical literacy and interpretive skills.

 Introduction

In the field of literary criticism, few figures have exerted as much influence on the theory of interpretation as I. A. Richards. His seminal work, Practical Criticism (1929), revolutionized the way literature—particularly poetry—is read, understood, and evaluated. One of Richards’s most enduring contributions is his analysis of figurative language, which he considers not as ornamental or secondary, but as central to the understanding of poetic meaning. Figurative language, for Richards, is not merely a rhetorical device but a psychological process that reflects the complex interactions between thought, emotion, and language. This essay explores how figurative language functions in Practical Criticism, illuminating Richards's approach to interpretation, the psychological nature of metaphor, and the implications for modern literary analysis.

Richards’s Method: Practical Criticism as a Scientific Approach to Literature

Before delving into figurative language, it is essential to understand Richards's overall methodology. Practical Criticism emerged from classroom experiments in which Richards presented students with poems stripped of their authors’ names and historical context. The aim was to analyze how readers respond to texts purely on the basis of internal features—language, tone, structure, and meaning. Through this method, Richards observed that misinterpretation was rampant, and much of it stemmed from readers’ inability to recognize and decode figurative language.

In Richards's view, this revealed a pressing need for a more scientific and psychological approach to criticism—one that considers how readers process metaphors, symbols, and emotional connotations. Figurative language, he argued, is central to poetic meaning and cannot be understood through a superficial reading. Thus, Richards places figurative language at the heart of literary criticism.

The Tenor and the Vehicle: Understanding Metaphor

Richards's most famous theoretical contribution to figurative language is his distinction between the “tenor” and the “vehicle” of a metaphor. The tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed, and the vehicle is the image that carries those attributes. For example, in the metaphor “time is a thief,” time is the tenor, and thief is the vehicle. The function of metaphor, according to Richards, is to create a fusion between disparate elements, thereby expanding our understanding of both.

This framework highlights metaphor as a cognitive process rather than a decorative flourish. It reflects how human beings think through analogy and association. In Practical Criticism, Richards demonstrates how failure to grasp the tenor-vehicle relationship leads to interpretive errors. For instance, some students in his experiments would take metaphors literally, resulting in absurd or shallow readings of poems. Thus, for Richards, metaphor is a tool of thought, essential to the meaning-making process.

Figurative Language and the Psychology of Reading

Richards's interest in figurative language stems from his background in psychology. He believed that language is a mediator between thought and emotion, and that figurative expressions are manifestations of the mind's attempts to grasp complex experiences. In The Meaning of Meaning (1923), co-authored with C. K. Ogden, Richards elaborates on the idea that words do not inherently carry meaning; instead, meaning arises from the psychological and contextual associations that a reader brings to a word.

This view is extended in Practical Criticism, where figurative language is shown to evoke emotional responses that shape interpretation. A metaphor can subtly guide the reader’s emotional and intellectual engagement with the poem. For example, consider the metaphor “the sea of grief.” It does not just state that someone is sad; it immerses the reader in an overwhelming, engulfing emotional state. Richards insists that figurative language functions as a psychological trigger, affecting not only what we understand but how we feel about it.

The Role of Context and Ambiguity

One of the challenges Richards identifies is that figurative language often resists fixed meaning. Metaphors, symbols, and irony introduce semantic ambiguity, which requires the reader to engage in active interpretation. This is not a flaw but a feature of poetic language. Richards argues that the power of poetry lies in its ability to sustain multiple layers of meaning, allowing emotional and intellectual resonance to coexist.

In Practical Criticism, Richards includes numerous examples where students failed to navigate this ambiguity, leading to reductive readings. For instance, a metaphor intended to convey spiritual enlightenment might be misread as mere physical imagery. These failures, Richards asserts, underscore the need for linguistic sensitivity and imaginative sympathy when reading figurative texts.

Figurative Language as a Measure of Literary Value

Richards also uses figurative language as a criterion to evaluate the quality of poetry. In his analysis, good poetry uses figurative language not just for effect but to integrate emotion, thought, and form. He admired poets who used metaphor to deepen understanding rather than obscure it. For Richards, a poem's value lies in its capacity to communicate complex emotional experiences through a coherent system of imagery and symbolism.

He critiques poems that use figurative language irresponsibly—either to shock, confuse, or distract. Such usage, he claims, leads to emotive distortion rather than clarity. Richards believed that poetic excellence comes from a controlled and purposeful deployment of figurative language that aligns with the poem's central meanings and tones.

The Ethical Dimension of Figurative Language

Interestingly, Richards also touches upon the ethical implications of figurative language. In Practical Criticism, he warns that misuse of metaphor can manipulate readers’ emotions and lead to false conclusions. This becomes particularly significant in political rhetoric and propaganda, where metaphors are employed to simplify complex issues or demonize opponents.

Thus, learning to interpret figurative language critically is not just a literary skill but a civic one. According to Richards, training in literary criticism prepares individuals for ethical reasoning and emotional intelligence, helping them resist manipulation and engage more thoughtfully with language in all domains of life.

Legacy and Influence on Modern Criticism

Richards's insights into figurative language laid the groundwork for several later developments in literary theory. The New Critics adopted his close-reading method, while structuralists and post-structuralists expanded on his ideas about metaphor, symbol, and ambiguity. His influence is visible in the works of critics like Cleanth Brooks, T. S. Eliot, and later thinkers such as Paul de Man and Jacques Derrida.

In contemporary literary theory, metaphors are no longer seen as secondary to meaning but as constitutive of meaning itself—an idea foreshadowed by Richards. Moreover, his psychological approach has found renewed relevance in cognitive poetics and reader-response theory, both of which explore how figurative language shapes mental and emotional engagement.

Figurative Language in the Digital Age

Richards’s theories also remain pertinent in the digital age. In a world flooded with information, metaphor and imagery dominate not only poetry but advertising, social media, and political discourse. Understanding how figurative language functions is crucial for navigating these environments. Richards's emphasis on critical literacy—the ability to interpret nuanced meanings—offers valuable tools for analyzing modern forms of expression, from memes to campaign slogans.

Conclusion

I. A. Richards’s Practical Criticism remains a foundational text in the study of literature, not least for its pioneering analysis of figurative language. For Richards, metaphors, symbols, and images are not merely stylistic elements but core mechanisms through which literature communicates thought and emotion. His exploration of the tenor and vehicle, his emphasis on psychological processes, and his attention to ethical and aesthetic dimensions of figurative language have left a lasting legacy. In our increasingly image-saturated world, his insistence on reading “beyond the words” remains more relevant than ever. Figurative language, in Richards’s view, is not just a matter of style—it is the very substance of meaning.

Reference 

Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2011.

Richards, I. A. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1929.

Richards, I. A. & Ogden, C. K. The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1923.

Wimsatt, W. K., & Beardsley, M. C. “The Intentional Fallacy.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 54, no. 3, 1946, pp. 468–488.